Questions from Reading: Securing the Peace

1. Why did Woodrow Wilson not take any Republicans with him to Europe for the Peace Conference?

The majority of Republicans did not approve of Wilson's plans for the treaty. Senator Henry Cabot, a prominent Republican, was a particularly staunch opponent of Wilson's 14 points; he influenced many other Republicans' views. Wilson brought no Republicans on his European trip in order to make sure that his presentations there were well supported.

2. Why was Wilson welcomed in Paris?

Parisians and other Europeans who flocked to Paris for Wilson's visit had already read his 14 points prior to his arrival. They were thrilled with it - many hoped that Wilson's plan would finally give their ethnic group the representation that they wanted, and everyone thought that Wilson would truly bring peace and unity to Europe.

3. The idea of self-rule, which Wilson advocated, was not included in the Treaty to the extent Wilson had hoped. Why not?

The other three members of the Big Four saw post-war Europe as heading towards something very different than what Wilson envisioned; they were more set on revenge than creating unity or granting self-rule to their colonies. They were totally concerned with punishing Germany and getting the money that they had lost back; in order for Wilson to get any of his points to go through, he had to back down on the self-rule aspect of his plan.

4. The Allied Big Four - Wilson, Lloyd George, Orlando, and Clemenceau - discussed the question of whether to invite the conquered Germans and the new Russian Bolsehvik government to the Versailles Conference and its negotiations but decided against it. Was the decision justified? Explain your reasoning.

This was not justified in any way. Yes, there was tension between the Big Four and Germany, and yes, Russia's new government was unstable and not condoned by much of Europe. However, signing a peace treaty with only half of the warring countries participating is inconceivable. By ignoring Germany, the Big Four only angered it further, lessening their chances of Germany submitting to their demands. As for Russia, by not inviting Russia to take part in the treaty debates, the Big Four created more tension and insulted Russia's new government. It would seem that when a new, unstable government arises, one would want to include it and try to befriend it, rather than automatically angering it.

5. Which Big Four leader showed up at the Paris Conference with the most strenght to influence the proceedings? Which was the weakest? Why?

Wilson showed up at the Paris Conference with the most strength to influence the proceedings, whereas Orlando showed up with the least strength. Wilson may not have been as deeply involved in the war, but it was thanks to him that the war had ended with the Allies on top; his plan was well-thought out and he was eager to present it. Orlando had the least strength, having been the last to join the Allies - Italy was not as militarily or monetarily sound as the US, France, or Britain.

6. Why did Wilson have such difficulty seeing his Fourteen Points written into the Peace Plan?

The other members of the Big Four were far too set on revenge to consider all of Wilson's points. They did not care about readjusting borders and all of the other details Wilson wanted considered; they simply wanted to punish Germany and get the blame off of themselves.

7. Explain Article X of the League of Nations Covenant. What problems with the covenant did some Americans have?

Article X stated that every member of the League of Nations would respect the borders laid out by the treat drawn up at Versailles, and each member would do their best to uphold these borders if danger arose, by either financial or military aid. Many Americans felt that this was working directly against America's isolationism policy; they worried that if American involved itself too much in Europe, in affairs that did not specifically concern it, it would simply put America at risk.

Woodrow Wilson Fights For Peace

1. What was Wilson's 14th Point?

Wilson's 14th proposed setting up a League of Nations in which countries could talk through diplomatic issues so that going to war could be avoided whenever possible.
2. What terms of the treaty specifically affected Germany?

The treaty forbid Germany from having an army. It also forced Germany to repay $33 billion dollars to the Allies - money that Germany did not have. Finally, the treaty forced Germany to give the region of Alsace-Lorraine back to France. Also, the treaty forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war.
3. What were the weaknesses of the treaty?

The treaty had many unforeseen weaknesses. Firstly, the treaty embarrassed Germany. How could a stable nation be rebuilt if one of its parts is being ridiculed? Also, the treaty asked Germany to pay the Allies vast sums of money - it was not taken into consideration that Germany didn't have nearly that much money. Thirdly, although Russia had participated heavily in the war, it was not included in the conference. It also lost a lot of land - even more than Germany did. Finally, the treaty completely ignored certain groups of people - such as the Vietnamese citizens, who were vying for rights equaled those of Western citizens.
4. Why did Henry Cabot Lodge object to the treaty?

Lodge believed that the League would interfere with the U.S.' policy of isolationism. He was particularly suspicious of the League's call for joint military and financial action against any insubordination - even though involvement in such situations would be completely voluntary.
5. How did Wilson help bring about the Senate's rejection of the treaty?

Wilson ignored the Republican majority and picked unpopular candidates for his delegation. Traveling throughout the country made him too ill to continue to give speeches to the Senate; even then, he absolutely refused to compromise. Had he been a little more willing to bend, the treaty might have been passed.
6. What circumstances at this time would eventually lead many Germans to support Adolf Hitler?

Many Germans were outraged at the treatment of Germany in the Treaty of Versailles - they had expected Wilson to make things even across Europe, but instead, they got severely undercut. They had lost land, men, money, and dignity, all with nothing to show for it. Adolf Hitler promised a vision of a new, strong, constantly victorious Germany, which everyone would respect - how could anyone say no?
7. Who is George Clemenceau?

George Clemenceau was the French premier at the time of WWI.
8. Who is David Lloyd George?

David Lloyd George was the British prime minister at the time of WWI.
9. Describe the participation of Russia at the peace conference.

Russia had no involvement in the peace conference - it was specifically excluded from negotiations.

The War At Home

What were some things accomplished by the following wartime agencies and laws?

1. War Industries Board: Encouraged companies to cut down on waste and mass-produce products more efficiently; caused industrial production to rise by 20%, but prices to rise exponentially as well; companies profited but citizens suffered.
2. Railroad Administration: Regulated the railroads as the WIB regulated factories.
3. Fuel Administration: Watched coal supplies and rationed heating oil; introduced and popularized Daylight Savings Time in order to save fuel.
4. National War Labor Board: Moderated issues that arose between workers and managers; took away draft exemptions from workers who caused problems; also worked to improve work conditions - supported eight hour days, safety inspections, child labor bans.
5. Food Administration: Helped to ration food by promoting the "gospel of the clean plate" and days where you would go without something: one day a week without sweets, one day without meat, two without wheat, and two without pork; encouraged restaurants to reduce waste; promoted the planting of victory gardens to supplement home kitchens; tripled food shipments to the Allies.
6. Committee on Public Information: Nation's first propaganda agency; George Creel convinced thousands of artists to create posters, cartoons, paintings, and statues to promote patriotism and the war; distributed thousands of pamphlets and other literature promoting the war; had "Four Minute Men" promote joining up and sell war bonds; these efforts angered many opponents of the war.
7. Espionage and Sedition Acts: stated that a person could be fined up to $10,000 or incarcerated for 20 years for interfering with the war effort or saying anything disloyal about the war or the government; led to over 2,000 prosecutions, about 1/2 of which were convicted; targeted socialists and labor leaders; dissenters were sent to jail, fined, or even deported.

Briefly explain why Bernard M. Baruch and George Creel are significant historical figures.

Bernard M. Baruch is a significant historical figure because he was the leader of the WIB - it was under his organization that conservation and mass production techniques to support a war effort became popular. We still use some of the ideas that he pushed forwards today - even if not to the extent that the WIB used the, Baruch's ideas and motives underly our war effort today.

George Creel is an important historical figure because he was the head of the first national propaganda organization. Without him, propaganda would never have gotten going in such a big way, for it was during WWI that it got its start. Creel came up with techniques to intrigue the public and tug at their heartstrings, often shaming them into contributing to the war effort. Creel is significant because he forwarded a new technique that would be used widely in every war that America would fight in the future.

The U.S. Enters World War I

1. How did the United States raise an army?
In order to gather enough men to create an effective army, Congressed passed the Secret Service Act. This forced men to register for the draft - they would then be selected at random to be sent into the war. Soldiers trained for hours every day, in order to prepare for battle.

2. How did U.S. soldiers help win the war?
First, America suggested that Britain use the convoy system to cut down on shipping losses (this worked very well). Next, the US created a 230 mile blockade from northern Scotland to Novia Scotia to prevent German U-Boats from going into the Atlantic. The American soldiers were greatly useful: fresh and passionate, they had an energy that the European soldiers who had been fighting for years already lacked. After Russia pulled out of the war, the Americans were highly influential in fighting Germany out of France. With their help, the tide quickly turned.

3. What were the estimated economic costs of the war?
The estimated economic cost of the war was $338 billion.

4. What did the war cost in terms of the number of civilian deaths; military deaths?; injuries?; and refugees?

Civilian deaths: 11 million
Military deaths: 11 million

Injuries: 20 million

Refugees: 10 million

5. Define armistice.

An armistice is a truce or peace agreement that ends a conflict.

World War I Begins

1. What are the four main causes of World War I? Give an example for each as to why it was a cause.
Nationalism: There was much competition between the countries of the world to gain more land and have a bigger military than their neighbors. This constant battle to be on top led to high tensions and short tempers, especially around Europe, where the fear of invasion (especially by Germany) was a constant.

Imperialism: Many of the European countries were striving to colonize all over the world; colonies provided financial support and power. As Germany became more and more powerful, England and France began worrying about competing with it for colonies.

Militarism: During this time period, a sort of arms race launched in Europe. As each country tried to defend its empire, they began to stockpile men and weapons, trying to get more than their neighboring countries. Germany, although it had the strongest army at the time, was not seen as a threat by England until it started building up its navy; at that point, England became worried.

Alliances: Europe split into two alliances: The Allies (France, Britain, and Russia) and the Triple Allies (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). The countries were so concerned with keeping power balanced and protecting their allies that it caused tensions to rise exponentially; what seemed a safe back up plan actually caused a blow up that resulted in all out war.

2. How did the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand become the spark for WWI?
Since Ferdinand's assassinator was Serbian, Austria-Hungray declared war on Serbia. This sparked a massive response from the two allied groups: Russia offered aid to Serbia, which led Germany to declare war on Russia, and then France; soon after, England declared war on Germany.

3. What happened within the first few months of fighting?
Within the first few months of fighting, the Schlieffen plan was put into action. German troops marched through neutral Belgium; Allied troops tried to stop them but could not. However, Allied troops flocked to Paris to defend it from German attack. Soon, vast arrays of trenches spread throughout the land around France - no one was moving anywhere.

4. Generally, why did the United States want to stay out of the war?
The war was so far away that it did not threaten any American property, or put American lives at risk.

5. Specifically, Why did the following groups of Americans tend to oppose U.S. participation in the war? Naturalized citizens; socialists; pacifists; parents.

Naturalized citizens opposed U.S. participation in the war because they still closely sympathized with their home countries; they could not condone fighting against their motherlands. Socialists were opposed to U.S. involvement in the war because they thought it was simply a struggle for capitalist markets in the Eastern world. Pacifists could not condone the US going to war because they thought war was inherently evil; parents were opposed because they did not want to send their children off to die in what they knew was a bloody war.

6. How did Germany respond to the British naval blockade of Germany’s ports? What was the U.S. response?

Germany responded to the British naval blockade of Germany's ports by sending U-Boats to form a counter blockade that would blow up any ship that entered Great Britain's waters, whether it was armed or not. The U.S. was shocked; Americans were being killed in these explosions. The US threatened to end all diplomatic communications with Germany if Germany did not revoke its policy.

7. What forced the United States into the war?

Germany ignored President Wilson's call for peace; in fact, they issued a statement saying that they would sink ALL boats in British waters without hesitation. Wilson, waiting for an open act of hostility, soon got it: the Zimmerman note, sent from Germany to a German ambassador in Mexico, proposed an alliance with Mexico and promised to help Mexico regain land in Texas if Germany's side won. After this, Germany sunk four American merchant ships. After this, the Russian government changed over to a representative government (it was formerly a monarchy), which gained much support from Americans.

America As A World Power

1. What role did President Roosevelt play in ending the Russo-Japanese War?
When Japan asked President Roosevelt to negotiate peace talks between it and Russia, Roosevelt heartily agreed. He gathered

delegates from the two nations in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to discuss various possible outcomes. Roosevelt's charming manner

soon put everyone at ease, and a solution that pleased both sides was reached quickly, ending the conflict.
2. What events led to the building of the Panama Canal? What happened regarding Columbia? (Be specific)
In 1850, Britain and America agreed to share a canal through Central America, which would make travel to the Pacific much easier. In 1901, Britain signed a treaty that gave America exclusive rights to this hypothetical canal. Two possibles routes were discovered - one, a difficult but short route that went through Panama, had been attempted without success by the French years earlier. In 1903, France sold the rights to this route to the US. The US needed Colombian permission to build this canal, but Colombia would not agree; in order to fix this, the French dignitary who had sold the route to the US helped to organize a Panamian revolt against Colombia (Colombia controlled Panama at this time). The US made sure to have ships present when the Panamians gained independence; 15 days after their victory, Panama signed a treaty with the US that enabled the US to build the canal.
3. What did the Roosevelt Corollary state?
The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the US would use force in order to protect its economic interests in the Western Hemisphere.
4. How did Taft use Dollar Diplomacy to enforce the Roosevelt Colollary on Nicaragua? (Be specfic)
In 1911, a revolt in Nicaragua left the country bankrupt. President Taft issued legislature that allowed US bankers to give the country enough money to get back on its feet, in return for the bankers being able to collect duties from Nicaragua. The bankers also gained control of Nicaragua's railroad and banking systems. The Nicaraguan citizens were not pleased; they revolted; Taft sent in thousands of marines to shut down the rebellion, and left some of those troops there even after relative calm had been restored. This strategy of lending other countries money to extend American power became known as "dollar diplomacy".
5. Why did Woodrow Wilson invade Mexico?
Woodrow WIlson invaded Mexico because, after redefining the Monroe Doctrine to state that the US had a moral obligation to intervene when any government in a foreign nation was set up in a way that endangered American interests, he did not approve of the overthrowing of the Porfirio Díaz by Victoriano Huerto. He invaded the country in order to shut down this supposedly dangerous government.
6. What were three major foriegn policy goals achieved by the United States in the early 20th century. Be sure to provide an example or two of each.

1) Expanded access to foreign markets in order to ensure the growth of the economy: Mediated with Russia and Japan, gained land in Panama.

2) Built a modern navy to protect its interests: Sending ships to Panama in order to gain access to the Canal zone.

3) Exercised its police power to exert dominance in Latin America: The Roosevelt Corollary, Taft's use of dollar diplomacy on Nicaragua, Wilson's invasion of Mexico.

Imperialism's Bitter Fruit

1. a. After the Spanish were forced out of the Philippines, why did fighting break out between American and Filipino forces?

The Filipinos had been told by the US that they would receive their freedom after Spain was removed. However, this was far from the case - racial prejudices and a thirst for economic gain kept the US in the Philippines long after the time when they should have left. The US troops had orders to enforce order in the Philippines, but to the Filipinos, the Americans were simply another group of unwanted leaders. They saw fighting back as necessary - another revolution for freedom.

b. How was this a different kind of warfare for American forces?
Rather than organized fighting against a set army, the battles that the American forces were fighting in the Philippines were against guerilla soldiers who blended into the countryside and did not listen to conventional "honorable" rules of warfare. Torture, random killings, and holding civilians captive were all techniques utilized by both sides. This war was bloody and brutal, unlike the more "civilized wars" that the US had become involved in in the past.

2. Why were many African-Americans strong critics of the war against Filipino nationalists?
One reason that many African-Americans criticized the war in the Philippines was the fact that racist white Americans often failed to differentiate between African-Americans and Filipinos - to these white, racist Americans, the blacks were just as barbaric and savage and uneducated as the Filipinos were, so what was the difference?

Also, although they served incredibly bravely in the army, they still faced huge amounts of discrimination. They were still excluded from certain restaurants and public facilities, just as they had been back in the US.
3. Explain two reasons why the United States lost some of its enthusiasm for imperialism in the early 1900s.

a. Things were going badly in the Philippines - soldiers were being killed and tortured by the thousands, and the US was not earning money off the islands as had been promised. Americans were beginning to see that imperialism did not always work out to plan.

b. Anti-imperialists grew very vocal during this time period, especially around the time of reelection. Mark Twain in particular was very influential. People were ready to listen to new ideas, and this was a side that was presented well.


4. What were the positive effects of American occupation in Puerto Rico and Cuba?
Especially in Cuba, American technology and administrative knowledge began to spread throughout the land. Yellow fever disappeared, sanitation improved, telephones were implemented - massive steps forward in the island's welfare were made. In Puerto Rico, the same developments were being made. On top of this, Cuban and Puerto Rican citizens were granted US citizenship, giving them many more options in the world.

5. After the Spanish-American War, the United States insisted that Cuba only receive independence after agreeing to several limitations set forth in the Platt Amendment. Four restrictions on Cuban independence set forth in the Platt Amendment were:

a. The US had the right to oversee the Cuban economy


b. The US could veto any foreign policy decisions made by Cuba


c. The US could build a naval base in the southern part of the island


d. The US could intervene in Cuba's affairs at any time

Was the United States justified in making these demands? Explain your reasoning.
The US was most certainly not justified in making these demands. What claim ddi America have over Cuba? Just because it was near America geographically does not grant America the right to use Cuba as it sees fit. The Platt Amendment was really a catch-22: without it, Cuba would not be granted official independence, but with it, Cuba was not really all that free anyways. The Platt Amendment was certainly manipulative, using something that the Cubans were desperate for (independence) in order to keep American interests alive and well in Cuba. It is hard to believe that America really had Cuba's best interests in mind here; it seems that all America was really focusing on was helping itself and spiting Europe.

6. Do you believe the United States was imperialist? Why or why not?

America was most certainly imperialist. All of its actions from the late 1800s to the early 1900s and even before can be classified as imperialist - seeking to further American power by using military or political force. America was ruthless when it came to getting new lands for itself, and often behaved rather like a bratty child. There was a great feeling of entitlement running rampant in America in this time; for this reason, America pushed its way into the world, striving for any land it could get its hands on in the hopes to snatch land before Europe could get to it. Although it claimed to have other nations best interests at heart, American often abused and broke promises to the nations it took over. Why? All in the name of power and business! America is a prime example of an imperialist nation: from Hawaii to Cuba, Guam to the Philippines, Puerto Rico to Asia, the US took whatever land it could possibly attain. Especially during this time period, the US was highly concerned with asserting itself as a world power, and furthering its reach in the world.

Spanish-American War

Questions for Part II—The Spanish-American War

1. What connections did the U.S. have to Cuba in the late 1800s? List at least two.
First and foremost, the US had vast amounts of money invested in Cuba's sugar industry. In fact. the US actually removed tariffs on Cuban sugar in order to lower the cost of sugar in America.

Also, during the Cuban revolt in 1868, many Cuban leaders had suggested joining the US after they gained their freedom. The US, although it refused to get involved this revolution, was open to the proposal, eager to gain another slave territory. Many Cubans saw joining the US as a move for security and protection at that time.

2. What were the Spanish “reconcentration camps”?
The Spanish reconcentration camps were created to cut off the nationalist forces from the general public. The Spanish thought that this would cut the rebels off from supplies and shelter. In order to do this, these camps were created. Thousands upon thousands of innocent Cuban citizens were herded into enclosed towns where a lack off food, adequate housing, and sanitation made living conditions horrible.


3. List three reasons why the United States went to war with Spain in Cuba.
a. Many US businessmen had interests in Cuba. Under Spanish rule, these interests were threatened. If the US went to war with Spain, they had the chance to gain Cuba and boost American profits there. They also had the chance to gain Spain's other territories. One reason the US went to war with Spain was to expand their control and gain more lucrative areas in the world for American use.

b. The Spanish ambassador to the US wrote a private letter to a friend insulting President McKinley. This letter was leaked to American newspapers, and tensions rose dramatically. Americans had been looking for an excuse to get angry at Spain, and this incident provided it. Combined with yellow journalism, the ambassador's insults were soon blown far out of proportion and anti-Spanish sentiments swelled throughout the country.

c. The final straw for the US was the explosion of the USS Maine. The ship had been anchored in Havana harbor on a peaceful errand; Spain had okayed the visit. When the ship was blown up, 260 American soldiers were killed in the blast. Although it could not be confirmed at the time, rumours quickly began flying. Americans became incensed, convinced that the Spanish had blown up a US ship for no good reason and killed hundreds of innocent men. The US felt that it could no longer wait - Spain had apparently taken one step too far and needed to be dealt with.


4. Which do you believe was the most important reason? Why?
Reason A was certainly the most important reason. It set a background for the other two reasons. If the US had not had an interest in Cuba in the first place, tension would never have been created between Spain and America. If American businessmen had never had interests in Cuba, the government never would have been pressured into protecting those interests above all others. If America had not been tempted to take over Spain's many other territories, there would have not been enough pros to push the US into war. Reason A set up a base argument for going to war - the other two reasons simply acted as catalysts.

5. What did the Teller Amendment say?
The Teller Amendment claimed that the US was not, in fact, interested in controlling the Cuban people or ruling them. It also stated that once the war was over, the Cuban government would be left intact and control of the island would be left to the Cuban people.

6. Why was a portion of the Spanish-American War fought in the Philippines?
Although most were focused near Cuba, a portion of the Spanish troops were stationed in the Philippines. Also, though less so, the nationalists in the Philippines were seen as allies to the US. It was thought that defending them and supplying them with weapons would aid the US in its fight against Spain.

7. Dewey’s victory in the Manila Harbor sparked an outpouring of army volunteers in the United States.



8. Why did Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders want to fight in Cuba?
Like many other volunteers, The Rough Riders were encouraged to fight by Dewey's early victory at Manila. In a rush to defend their country and provide much needed man power, boys from Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma and North and South Dakota poured in to join the Rough Riders. Teddy Roosevelt was especially passionate about their cause - he actually left his job in the McKinley legislation to take his position in the army.

9. a. Why were many African-Americans eager to serve in the Spanish-American War?
Many African-Americans saw the army as a way of moving up in the world. Not only was the army one of the few places that would take them, if they met military success, it would hopefully glean respect from the general public back home. Also, many blacks identified with the struggles of the Cuban slaves and were sympathetic to their cause.

b. What forms of discrimination and prejudice did they encounter?
First of all, they were unable to be promoted to the officer corps. At first, many blacks were actually denied when they volunteered to join the army. Many regiments were actually kept from fighting in Cuba, even though the government assumed that they would be more suited for a tropical climate and even that they would be immune to yellow fever.

10. How did racism influence American perceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines? Give two examples of events where racism affected U.S. policy after the war.

a. In the negotiations with Spain, the Cuban rebels and the Cuban people in general were largely ignored. The US assumed that the apparently stupid savages were unable to create good diplomatic policies - how could such unintelligent people possibly govern themselves, they thought?

b. Although the US had claimed that they were fighting for Filipino freedom, after the war, control was not relinquished to the Filipinos as promised. The US decided to remain in the Philippines until "things could be worked out" - it was very clear to the Filipinos that "things" would not be worked out for a very long time.

Imperialism: The Origins Of a Global Power

1. Why did American plantation owners and U.S. Marines topple Hawaii’s queen in 1893? Why was Hawaii considered to be a valuable prize? What was President Grover Cleveland’s reaction? Do you agree or disagree with his quote on page 1?

For many years before 1893, Hawaii had been involved in U.S. business affairs. The islands were considered a highly valuable prize - they were the perfect refueling point for ships crossing the Pacific Ocean to Asia, not to mention the fact that the islands were chock full of natural resources. Many U.S. businessmen had invested in these tropical crops, and for the, an American annexation of Hawaii would have been immensely profitable. In 1893, their urging to place Hawaii under U.S. control pushed through, and with the help of the Marines, Hawaii's monarchy was toppled. President Grover Cleveland did not agree with these actions, though - he withdrew the treaty that would have granted the US control of Hawaii. He thought that the US had treated the Hawaiian queen unfairly, and that this would reflect poorly on the US.

I agree with his quote. Yes, it was not America's right to annex Hawaii, and yes, it was a stain on the nation's morals. If powerful countries abuse their might to gain as much land as possible, how can the world possibly function? It is not appropriate for a country that preaches justice for all to storm into an innocent land and re-haul everything that the native people have ever known. The US made a mistake with Hawaii, and it needed to be fixed.

2. Identify five important changes that transformed American in the nineteenth century. How did these five changes affect Americans?

1) Immigration: As more and more immigrants poured into the country in the late nineteenth century, America's demographic began to change. No longer was America made up of northwestern European descended citizens - as conditions grew more crowded and oppressive in Europe, immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe began to flood the country as well. This not only raised America's population significantly, it boosted America's ethnic diversity by far.

2) Urban growth: With the growth of its population, America began to develop larger and larger cities. With these cities arrived significant problems: disease, overcrowding, poverty, rising crime rates, etc. As city living became more popular, agriculture lost its appeal. American became a city-centralized nation.

3) Manufacturing: By the time the late 1800s had rolled around, manufacturing was far more popular than farming. These factories often drew immigrant workers, who were willing to work for close to nothing. The iron and steel industries boomed, and technological advances happened every day. A "new kind of immigrant" cropped up - these Southern and Eastern Europeans worried many Americans.

4) Trade: With manufacturing came many exportable goods. America was making a fair amount of money from exports to Europe. The kinds of things the US exported changed, too - advances in transportation boosted the transportation of agricultural goods, and the US soon became just as heavy a name in the trading industry as most European countries were.

5) Growing economic power: The US began to look to buy overseas markets to receive American goods. This worried many European nations, and caused them to raise their tariffs. This meant that America began to export its goods to less powerful countries, such as those in Latin America and Asia.

3. How did the economic depression that began in 1893 deepen the divisions in American society? Which groups suffered the most during the depression?

The economic depression of 1893 only served to deepen the divisions already made in American society. It affected factory workers and immigrants, as well as poor farmers, most heavily. This made these lower class workers realize that they did not have a strong foothold in the world of American business. It was the big business men and factory owners who held all the power - if the workers struck, they lost their jobs; if they did not strike, they were barely earning a living as it was. The depression also split America into two groups - those who were in favor of cheap money (farmers in debt who supported a boost in the money supply) and those who favored tight money (stated that an increase of the money supply would cause awful inflation).

4. What were the values many Americans attached to the frontier? Why did many Americans fear that the closing of the frontier would harm America’s national character?

America had always viewed the frontier as a beautiful, plentiful, empty expanse of land. To explore the frontier was to be brave, strong, charismatic, American. White Americans thought of themselves as brave, pragmatic, ingenious, egalitarian, patriotic, individual and resourceful. All of these values were displayed in exploring the frontier, or so they thought. The frontier was also seen as a place of economic opportunity. Many Americans, especially old generation White Americans, feared that closing the frontier would mean an end to true American values. How could the country continue to grow in such a charismatic way if it could not expand into the open frontier?

5. Why did some Americans suggest greater involvement overseas?

Over the years, America had grown to be just as powerful as many European nations. With the general unrest in the country about losing American values, many US citizens felt that being more aggressive overseas would give America the air of toughness and bravery that the lack of a frontier to expand into had depleted. Other Americans simply saw the lands overseas as areas of economic growth. EIther way, it was clear that Americans had hunger to move up and out and make their presence known in the world that could not be stopped.

6. What policy did expansionists say would ensure the economic success of the United States? What did imperialists say?

Expansionists thought that, in order for the US to succeed economically, it would have to build an empire across the ocean. Some wanted to simply open American ports in other countries, but others pushed for the US to legitimately create an empire. The latter, called imperialists, insisted that it was America's mission to expand throughout the world, bringing American values to every savage or inferior nation.

7. How did the theories of social Darwinism and scientific racism lend support to the cause of American imperialism? How were these pseudo-scientific theories used to justify racist policies and imperialism? Are they still used today?

Imperialists used social Darwinism and scientific racism to back up their urging for the US to take over other countries. In the eyes of the Imperialists, some nations were simply more advanced and intelligent than others - as social Darwinism would say, some countries were higher up on the evolution chain than others. Scientific racism helped to support these claims but using supposedly medical and scientific means to determine that certain races were inferior to others. Of course, the Imperialists pointed out that the US came out on top in these theories, so what was the problem in taking over poorer, stupider countries? There was nothing wrong with it; on the contrary, Imperialists thought, the US would have been doing these countries a favor. Although these false scientific practices no longer hold real merit, there are unfortunate amounts of people in our modern world who still believe that some races and countries are vastly superior to others, for no apparent reason.

8. What did many Protestant churches say was America’s role in the world?

Many Protestant churches insisted that America's role in the world was to help save the people of "downtrodden" nations. They sent missionaries all over in order to apparently save the souls of "savages" in other countries. Some religious leaders even believed that god favored Americans, and that imperialism was god's plan for the human race. Some people even believed that if the Protestants and the US could spread their influence all over the world, world peace would be achieved.

9. Why did the United States become involved in several Latin American nations in the nineteenth century? Summarize why the United States became involved in Samoa, Hawaii, and other Latin American nations.

In the nineteenth century, the US became involved in several Latin American countries. There was big push to "stabilize" troublesome countries in order to make the world a safer place for American commerce. For example, in 1878, the US signed a treaty that promised to aid Samoa in exchange for free access to Samoan harbors. After the US agreed to this, Britain and Germany tried to take over parts of Samoa. The US held true to its promise and helped defend Samoa. The US did the same sort of thing in many other nations, specifically Hawaii. It offered protection or aid in return for easier trading access; in many cases, the US ended up annexing the very countries that it had originally offered aid to.

10. Why was the United States concerned about British involvement in Venezuela? What concept did U.S. Secretary of State Richard Olney invoke in response?

The US was concerned about British involvement in Venezuela because it was afraid that Britain would begin to colonize Latin America in the same way that it had colonized Africa. This would completely cut off American access to South America. Olney invoked the Monroe Doctrine in response - this caused much tension between Britain and America, but eventually things were resolved, although without the involvement of any Venezuelans.

Spanish-American War (1898)

Causes: How did each of the following help to cause the outbreak of the Spanish-American War?

1. American business owners
American business owners had ahd an interest in Cuba for a long time. They offered to buy Cuba from Spain - Spain responded to this with a violent and resounding "no". Even after this, Americans tended to lend sympathy to the Cubans during their revolutions against Spain. After Cuban slaves had been freed, America invested large amounts of money in Cuban sugar cane fields.
2. José Martí
A Cuban journalist and poet who had been exiled to New York, Marti helped to launch a campaign against the Spanish in 1895. He used guerrilla tactics and destroyed a lot of property, focusing particularly on American owned property. He hoped that this would drag America into the war, helping to gain freedom for Cuba.
3. Valeriano Weyler
A general sent by Spain to crush the revolution, Weyler's solution was to force Cuba's rural population into concentration camps. Food was scarce and disease ran rampant, but in Weyler's eyes, at least now the civilians would not be helping the rebels. News of this soon got out, and it caused a strong negative reaction, especially in the U.S.
4. Yellow journalism
Newspaper tycoons such as Hearst and Pulitzer published exaggerated accounts of the way things were playing out in Cuba, especially of the atrocities that Weyler was committing. These scintillating stories generated even more sympathy from Americans, and served to drum up even more war fever than before.
5. De Lôme letter
Things seemed to be going well in President McKinley's negotiations with Spain, up until 1898 when the New York Journal published a letter from the Spanish minister to the U.S. The letter, which had been leaked, insulted president McKinley, calling him weak. Although the minister resigned and Spain apologized, the damage had been done - Americans were outraged at this insult to their President.
6. U.S.S. Maine
On February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine exploded in the Havana harbor. More than 260 men were killed. It had originally been sent there to bring home U.S. citizens in risk of danger. Although no clear cut cause of the explosion has been uncovered, American newspapers blamed it on Spain, and the public listened, becoming even more angry than ever before.

Effects: What happened to each of the following territories as a result of the Spanish-American War?

7. Cuba
Cuba was granted its freedom via the Treaty of Paris.
8. Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory.
9. Guam
Like Puerto Rico and the Phillipines, Guam was annexed by America.
10. Philippine Islands
The citizens of the Phillipines were also fighting for their freedom. After the U.S. victory against Spain in the Phillipines, 11,000 U.S. troops joined Fillipino rebels in protesting for their freedom. The Phillipines were annexed to the U.S., although this launched great debate over whether this was the right thing to do or not.

U.S. Imperialism Begins

1. Name at least five factors that fueled American Imperialism.

Five factors that fueled American Imperialism were a desire for military strength, a thirst for new markets, a feeling of cultural superiority, ... (there were only three factors listed in the textbook?)

2. Choose two of the above five factors and describe them in your own words.

Thirst for new markets: As factories grew larger and larger, more and more natural resources were required. Also, technology had become so advanced in the US that food production far exceeded the consumption of it in America - foreign trade seemed to be the perfect way for the US to export its excess goods and gain what it needed.

Cultural superiority: Americans saw it was their duty to spread Christianity and civilized behavior to the "lower people" - the foreigners. Social Darwinism only contributed to this view - Americans thought that they had to make themselves a strong presence in the world in order to survive, and imposing their views on others seemed to be a good way to get their opinions out into the open.

3. What was known as “Seward’s Folly” and why?

The purchase of Alaska in 1867 was referred to as Seward's Folly. This was because the general public thought that the US Secretary of State, William Seward, was absolutely crazy for investing in such a cold, barren, icy land as Alaska.

4. What plantation-based product accounted for three-quarters ofHawaii’s wealth in the mid-19^th century and who controlled this product?

In the mid-19th century, sugar cane accounted for 3/4 of Hawaii's wealth. Unfortunately and unfairly, though, caucasian plantation owners controlled this product - the workers got little of the massive profit earned from it.

6. Using as much detail as possible, outline the sequence of events that led to America gaining possession of Hawaii? In other words, why was the United States interested in these Pacific islands?

For years, America had been using the Hawaiian islands as a pit stop on the way across the Pacific. White missionaries travelled to the islands to set up schools and churches, and their ancestors would eventually take over the plantation business. The US treated these plantation owners well, even importing their sugar without tax on it. However the McKinley Tariff of 1890 cancelled this deal, and the plantation owners grew upset. They called for the US to take over Hawaii, so that they would not have to pay a tax for importing their goods from what was , at that time, a foreign country. In 1887, the US had built a major naval base in Hawaii. It was clear that America had interest in Hawaii, but until later, it could not make a move.

King Kalakaua had been bullied into granting voting rights only to the wealthiest, and therefore white, citizens, but upon his death, the balance shifted. His sister took over, and set up a system that was much more balanced towards native Hawaiians. When she suggested that whether or not one owned property should not be used to allow someone to vote, several groups banded together to overthrow her. They succeeded, and set up a new government. This government was led by Sanford B. Dole. President Cleveland did not approve of these actions, and ordered that the queen be granted back her power, but the groups would not listen. In order to keep the peace, the president officially acknowledged the Republic of Hawaii. However, he refused to anex Hawaii unless it was voted forwards by the Hawaiian population. President McKinley, who succeeded President Cleveland, fully supported annexation, and in 1898, the Congress declared Hawaii a US territory - the Hawaiians never got their chance to vote. By 1959, Hawaii was an official state.

Child Labor Reform Photographs

Objective Assessment
As you view each photograph take note about what you see. (note people, background, objects) Pretend you were describing the image to someone who could not see it. Try to avoid making judgments.

Where are these children? List any clues relating to their surroundings.
Describe any tools or objects you see.
Describe their clothing. What do their clothes reveal about their work?

Subjective Assessment
What questions do you have about each of these photographs?
Based on your observations, list three things you might infer about the lives of these children. (Be sure to consider Hine's notes about the photographs when considering this.


Photograph A: In photograph A, we see a small child, very thin and in shabby clothes. Her hair is coming undone and her dress looks far too large for her thin frame. She is leaning with one hand on a grimy windowsill, the other hand resting on a loom or other type of cloth making machine. These machines stretch out far into the distance behind the girl. The lighting in the room is poor, although she is standing near a window. This photo brings up a few questions: how long has this girl been working on that day? How old is she? Where are the other workers? Hine's caption answers some of these questions; the girl "does not remember how old she is" , although she knows she is not old enough to work. She has been working at the mill for a year, sometimes working nights, running 4 sides of the machines. From this photo, we can infer that the girl is unhealthy, seeing as her clothes seem to envelope her incredibly thin body; she is overworked - the light seems to be fading, and yet she is still at the factory; she is far too young to be working with such large machines - the machine is at least twice her height!

Photograph B: There are 5 girls here; their clothes are in disarray, wrinkled, too large, and covered with lint; their hair styles look too old for them, as if they are trying to look more grown up than they really are; the girl in the middle is slumped over, as if something is wrong with her back; all but one of their faces are exhausted looking; they are standing in front of a large brick building. In Hines' caption, we learn that these are adolescent workers in Georgia. This raises a few questions: just how old are these girls? What kind of company do they work in? Is the girl in the middle simply exhausted, or has she been injured? We can infer that the girls work in a fairly dirty factory, seeing as they are covered in dust and lint; the work is not easy in any way, since they are all slumping over and leaning on each other; they are not small children, but they are still too young to work: they all look far older than their years, but we can tell that they are still teenagers.

Photograph C: We see a small girl in the middle of a long row of machines; her dress looks like simply a sack tied with string about the waist; she looks no older than 4 or 5; there is cotton strewn about the floor; the machines are so much taller than she is. Hines notes that the supervisor says she just "happened in", although Hines observed her steadily working. Hines also says that the factories in general were filled with children who just "happened in". We can infer that the child is working under the table, since the supervisor tried to cover for her; she is not earning enough wages to even buy proper clothing, which means that the rest of her family is very poor as well - we can infer from this that she is working out of necessity, to try and put food on her families table.

Photograph D: There is a small, sadfaced boy sitting on the base of streetlamp; he is holding newspapers to sell; there are adults walking buy not even looking at him; his face looks dirty, but at least he has a proper coat and boots. Hines says this boy was working on a Saturday afternoon. We can infer that he had no control over his hours and was forced to work at least a 6 day, if not a 7 day week - most children should have been out playing on a saturday afternoon, not working. We can also infer that this was the norm, since the adults walking by show no concern for him. His expression and posture suggest that he has been out there all day, and is in fact out there for hours every day that he works.

Photograph E: We see rows and rows of boys breaking coal; the air is thick with dust; their faces and clothes are covered with it; there is a supervisor who does not look much older than the rest of them, holding a long, sharp looking object, presumably to hurry them along. Hines notes that this supervisor often kicked the boys into obedience, and that the dust was thick enough to obscure the air. We can infer that these boys were desperate for money, since this job is not only hard but also dangerous; they most likely have to put up with violence from their supervisors without a word, for fear of losing their job; they are probably all getting sicker and sicker with every day, since the windows are closed and the only place for the coal dust to go is into their lungs.

Photograph F: There are many boys standing and working with a variety of pipes and machines; their clothing is torn and tattered, and their faces are covered either in bruises or dirt; the ground is covered in some kind of refuse, perhaps sand used in the glassmaking process; they are standing on every available surface in order to work with the machines. Hines says that the photo was taken at 9 p.m. in a glass making factory. We can infer that these boys had to deal with constant dangers on the job - glass making requires great amounts of heat, and burns were probably commonplace; their clothes are in such poor states that we can assume they are paid very little (one boy has massive holes in his shirt); their hours are not regulated at all - these are children, working until 9 o'clock at night!

Photograph G: We see people of all ages gathered around a tub-like structure, shucking oysters; there is everyone from a full grown woman to little boys and girls to a small baby who looks barely old enough to walk; there are a few bare bulbs dangling from the ceiling; dirt covers the floor; the windows are all closed; one girl stands perched on a rickety board over a channel in the floor. Hines says that everyone in this factory but the smalleset babies worked from 3:30 a.m. until 5p.m.; the mother in the photograph describes her young child as being "a great help to her". We can infer that the children were coerced into working by their own parents, in order to get the family a few more dollars or cents; the children were expected to work just as long as the adults, since the children are working right alongside their parents - they would probably not be allowed to leave early; the conditions of the factory were unsanitary - the windows are shut, the floor is dirty, and the children are being made to deal with raw shellfish for hours on end. The smell alone was probably sickening, let alone the risk of cutting yourself on the shells and getting an infection.

Photograph H: We see a group of children gathered around the factory doors, waiting to start their shift; it is dark outside; there looks to be snow on the ground; they are wrapped in layers of clothing, since their coats and shoes look thin; although some of them look to be teenagers, most look around 8 or 10. Hines writes that these children were starting the night shift at 6 p.m. and were expected to work until 6 a.m.; some of the girls were working instead of their father, who claimed to be too sick to work but was really just lazy; they had been working in the mills for years. We can infer that apart from their awful lives in the factory, some of these children had abusive home lives as well - imagine taking care of your own parent as a young child! We can also infer that these children were forced to work in any conditions, since there is snow on the ground here, and we can bet that the factory was not heated; we can infer that the children had to rely on themselves and each other to get to work and work efficiently - they would receive no help from adults. there is not a single adult shown here who looks like they walked their child to the factory, or made sure they had warm clothing ready, or something to eat for dinner.

Progressivism Under Taft & Wilson's New Freedom

Read Chapter 17-4 (Progressivism Under Taft) and Chapter 17-5 (Wilson's New Freedom)

1. How did William Howard Taft get selected to run for president?

William Taft was actually handpicked to run by Theodore Roosevelt, who at the time had just announced that he was not going to run for reelection. Taft was Roosevelt's Secretary of War. Taft and the Republican party received an easy victory.
2. How did Teddy Roosevelt come to oppose Taft for the presidency in 1912?

During Taft's presidency, the Republican party split in two. The more traditional Republicans stuck by Taft when it came to the election of 1912, whereas the more progressive Republicans fled to Roosevelt, feeling that Taft was anti-Progressive and anti-conservation.
3. What events helped Woodrow Wilson win the election in 1912?

After the split in the Republican party, the Democrats were finally able to get a foothold in the government system. As the rift between Roosevelt and Taft turned more and more caustic, the public began to look for a stable candidate. As Wilson began to voice his anti-big business policies, he quickly began to gain support from the electoral college, if not from the public.

4. What legislation did Wilson use to attack trusts and monopolies?

Wilson used two main legislations to attack trust and monopolies. There was the Clayton Antitrust Act in

1914, which banned companies from creating trusts that could turn into monopolies. It also protected labor

unions from being affected by antitrust laws, and protected strikers from being persecuted. There was also

the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914, which created the FTC - Federal Trade Commission. The FTC

was in charge of enforcing many of the laws of the Clayton Antitrust Act, and checked up on big businesses

to make sure that they were not performing any illegal activity.

5. What was the Nineteenth Amendment?

The Nineteenth Amendment, passed in 1919, granted women the right to vote.
6. How did America's entry into World War I affect the reform movement?

As America entered World War I, so much attention was being paid to the European front that national reform fell to the wayside. There were more pertinent issues to deal with; Wilson, the man who had been keeping the Progressive movement alive, was so occupied with the war in his second term that after World War I, the Progressive movement was nearly forgotten altogether - with no one pushing it, it simply could not survive.

TR's Square Deal

1. How did Roosevelt create the modern presidency?

As the youngest man ever to become President at the time, Roosevelt was certainly a new kind of president. He put himself into the public eye, letting tales of his athletic exploits reach and impress the public. He used the esteem that the population gave him to push new, forward thinking ideas, such as his policy that the government should step in whenever a state could not solve a problem on its own. Roosevelt saw the presidency as an opportunity to shape and influence the media, and he certainly made us of this opportunity.

2. How did Roosevelt's intervention in a coal strike set a precedent for federal arbitration?

Roosevelt's tactic of mediating a discussion between both sides of the coal strike was so successful that it quickly became

the standard for strike breaking. After Roosevelt's success here, any strike that interfered with the welfare of the public was to be

dealt with by the federal government.
3. What did Roosevelt do to the trusts and railroads?

Roosevelt took a passionate approach to reforming the trusts and railroads. Roosevelt strongly disliked any trust that he felt would hurt the public interest. In order to break up these trusts, he began filing suit after suit against them, in ordinance with the Sherman Anti-Act. Although not all of these suits were successful, Roosevelt managed to make a very clear statement.

Roosevelt took a similar approach to the railroad business, passing acts that made the railroad enterprise a more fair business for both the big leaders and the everyday workers. The Elkins Act of 1903 made it impossible for certain shippers or receivers to earn money simply by using specific railroads, and prevented railroad companies from raising their rates without alerting the public. the Hepburn Act of 1906 prohibiting the granting of free railroad passes. All of Roosevelt's efforts helped the federal government gain more control of the railroad business.
4. What legislation passed during Roosevelt's presidency protected citizens?

There were many legislations passed during Roosevelt's presidency that protected citizens - the Meat Inspection Act, which regulated conditions in meat packing plants and mandated government inspection of meat, and the Pure Food and Drug Act, which stopped the sale of any contaminated food or medicine and required all products to be truthfully labeled, were the two major public health legislations of the period.
5. What did Roosevelt do to protect the environment?

To protect the environment, Roosevelt started a huge conservation movement. He set up many national parks and wildlife reserves, and millions of acres of land for government water-power sites and geological exploration. The Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 gave money from land sales in the West to funding for large-scale irrigation projects.

Urbanization

1. What is Urbanization?

Urbanization refers to the massive growth of cities during the late 19th century, due to the huge amounts of country workers and immigrants who fled to the cities in hopes of finding work.

2. For what reasons did a number of Americans move from the country to the cities?

American poured into the cities from the country for a variety of reasons. Cities offered cheap living arrangements and a multitude of business opportunities. Also, as more and more technology was being used on country farms, more and more workers were put out of their jobs. These workers flocked to the cities in hopes of finding a job.

3. What were the housing problems that many poor city dwellers faced?

Housing conditions for the poor in cities were absolutely terrible. If they were lucky, one family could live in a single-family house, packed in tightly next door to another family. As the rate of immigrants raised, and the overall city population increased, it became increasingly common for two or even three families to share what had once been single-family homes. These buildings, called tenements, were quickly packed to the gills with people. Sanitation in them was awful, and disease and stench spread quickly. Air shaft and window regulations helped a little bit, but these were often simply used as another way to dispose of garbage. In order to fend off the smell, many families would board their windows shut. Although the tenements had been built to offer help to the poor, they ended up being a horrific place for anyone to live.

Immigration, cities

1) Describe the causes of the immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans, Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese to America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Europeans: Many of the Europeans (at first, it was mainly Eastern Europeans, but soon Southern Europeans followed suit) left their home country to get away from religious oppression. This was a particular problem for Jews, and many Jewish immigrants flocked to the US after being kicked out of their villages. Europe was also rising in population; simply by necessity, people were forced to leave in order to find work and enough food for their families. A final reason that many Europeans came to the US was because of new political movements in their homelands - individualism was being pushed, and America was a place where they could start over as individuals.

Chinese: The Chinese immigrants mainly went to the West Coast. Poverty in their old country drove them to look for lucrative jobs, and the California Gold Rush (as well as the railroad business boom) drew in millions of Chinese immigrants looking to make any amount of money they could earn. This was a similar path for other Asian immigrants, such as Koreans to take.

Japanese: The Japanese immigration wave was mainly caused by the Japanese government - they agreed to let Hawaiian planters recruit Japanese citizens to work on their farms. This chance at a "new life" seemed like an incredible opportunity, and the Japanese began to pour into the US.

2) Describe the journey immigrants endured and their experiences at United States immigration stations.

The journey itself was incredibly dangerous - immigrants packed on to steamships, paying for the cheapest passage possible. This meant that hundreds of people were stuffed into limited space below the deck, without fresh air. Disease spread like wildfire, since there was little sanitation. From Europe, immigrants could be stuck on the boat for a week; from Asia, it could take three weeks.

If they even survived the boat ride, immigrants were still not safe once they reached American shores. Each immigrant had to pass through an immigration station, where they would be examined for hours by government officials and doctors. There was a possibility that they could be sent back to their home country if their documents did not match up. Some detention centers were better than others; Angel Island, on the West Coast, for example, had very poor conditions compared to Ellis Island on the East Coast.