America As A World Power

1. What role did President Roosevelt play in ending the Russo-Japanese War?
When Japan asked President Roosevelt to negotiate peace talks between it and Russia, Roosevelt heartily agreed. He gathered

delegates from the two nations in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to discuss various possible outcomes. Roosevelt's charming manner

soon put everyone at ease, and a solution that pleased both sides was reached quickly, ending the conflict.
2. What events led to the building of the Panama Canal? What happened regarding Columbia? (Be specific)
In 1850, Britain and America agreed to share a canal through Central America, which would make travel to the Pacific much easier. In 1901, Britain signed a treaty that gave America exclusive rights to this hypothetical canal. Two possibles routes were discovered - one, a difficult but short route that went through Panama, had been attempted without success by the French years earlier. In 1903, France sold the rights to this route to the US. The US needed Colombian permission to build this canal, but Colombia would not agree; in order to fix this, the French dignitary who had sold the route to the US helped to organize a Panamian revolt against Colombia (Colombia controlled Panama at this time). The US made sure to have ships present when the Panamians gained independence; 15 days after their victory, Panama signed a treaty with the US that enabled the US to build the canal.
3. What did the Roosevelt Corollary state?
The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the US would use force in order to protect its economic interests in the Western Hemisphere.
4. How did Taft use Dollar Diplomacy to enforce the Roosevelt Colollary on Nicaragua? (Be specfic)
In 1911, a revolt in Nicaragua left the country bankrupt. President Taft issued legislature that allowed US bankers to give the country enough money to get back on its feet, in return for the bankers being able to collect duties from Nicaragua. The bankers also gained control of Nicaragua's railroad and banking systems. The Nicaraguan citizens were not pleased; they revolted; Taft sent in thousands of marines to shut down the rebellion, and left some of those troops there even after relative calm had been restored. This strategy of lending other countries money to extend American power became known as "dollar diplomacy".
5. Why did Woodrow Wilson invade Mexico?
Woodrow WIlson invaded Mexico because, after redefining the Monroe Doctrine to state that the US had a moral obligation to intervene when any government in a foreign nation was set up in a way that endangered American interests, he did not approve of the overthrowing of the Porfirio Díaz by Victoriano Huerto. He invaded the country in order to shut down this supposedly dangerous government.
6. What were three major foriegn policy goals achieved by the United States in the early 20th century. Be sure to provide an example or two of each.

1) Expanded access to foreign markets in order to ensure the growth of the economy: Mediated with Russia and Japan, gained land in Panama.

2) Built a modern navy to protect its interests: Sending ships to Panama in order to gain access to the Canal zone.

3) Exercised its police power to exert dominance in Latin America: The Roosevelt Corollary, Taft's use of dollar diplomacy on Nicaragua, Wilson's invasion of Mexico.

Imperialism's Bitter Fruit

1. a. After the Spanish were forced out of the Philippines, why did fighting break out between American and Filipino forces?

The Filipinos had been told by the US that they would receive their freedom after Spain was removed. However, this was far from the case - racial prejudices and a thirst for economic gain kept the US in the Philippines long after the time when they should have left. The US troops had orders to enforce order in the Philippines, but to the Filipinos, the Americans were simply another group of unwanted leaders. They saw fighting back as necessary - another revolution for freedom.

b. How was this a different kind of warfare for American forces?
Rather than organized fighting against a set army, the battles that the American forces were fighting in the Philippines were against guerilla soldiers who blended into the countryside and did not listen to conventional "honorable" rules of warfare. Torture, random killings, and holding civilians captive were all techniques utilized by both sides. This war was bloody and brutal, unlike the more "civilized wars" that the US had become involved in in the past.

2. Why were many African-Americans strong critics of the war against Filipino nationalists?
One reason that many African-Americans criticized the war in the Philippines was the fact that racist white Americans often failed to differentiate between African-Americans and Filipinos - to these white, racist Americans, the blacks were just as barbaric and savage and uneducated as the Filipinos were, so what was the difference?

Also, although they served incredibly bravely in the army, they still faced huge amounts of discrimination. They were still excluded from certain restaurants and public facilities, just as they had been back in the US.
3. Explain two reasons why the United States lost some of its enthusiasm for imperialism in the early 1900s.

a. Things were going badly in the Philippines - soldiers were being killed and tortured by the thousands, and the US was not earning money off the islands as had been promised. Americans were beginning to see that imperialism did not always work out to plan.

b. Anti-imperialists grew very vocal during this time period, especially around the time of reelection. Mark Twain in particular was very influential. People were ready to listen to new ideas, and this was a side that was presented well.


4. What were the positive effects of American occupation in Puerto Rico and Cuba?
Especially in Cuba, American technology and administrative knowledge began to spread throughout the land. Yellow fever disappeared, sanitation improved, telephones were implemented - massive steps forward in the island's welfare were made. In Puerto Rico, the same developments were being made. On top of this, Cuban and Puerto Rican citizens were granted US citizenship, giving them many more options in the world.

5. After the Spanish-American War, the United States insisted that Cuba only receive independence after agreeing to several limitations set forth in the Platt Amendment. Four restrictions on Cuban independence set forth in the Platt Amendment were:

a. The US had the right to oversee the Cuban economy


b. The US could veto any foreign policy decisions made by Cuba


c. The US could build a naval base in the southern part of the island


d. The US could intervene in Cuba's affairs at any time

Was the United States justified in making these demands? Explain your reasoning.
The US was most certainly not justified in making these demands. What claim ddi America have over Cuba? Just because it was near America geographically does not grant America the right to use Cuba as it sees fit. The Platt Amendment was really a catch-22: without it, Cuba would not be granted official independence, but with it, Cuba was not really all that free anyways. The Platt Amendment was certainly manipulative, using something that the Cubans were desperate for (independence) in order to keep American interests alive and well in Cuba. It is hard to believe that America really had Cuba's best interests in mind here; it seems that all America was really focusing on was helping itself and spiting Europe.

6. Do you believe the United States was imperialist? Why or why not?

America was most certainly imperialist. All of its actions from the late 1800s to the early 1900s and even before can be classified as imperialist - seeking to further American power by using military or political force. America was ruthless when it came to getting new lands for itself, and often behaved rather like a bratty child. There was a great feeling of entitlement running rampant in America in this time; for this reason, America pushed its way into the world, striving for any land it could get its hands on in the hopes to snatch land before Europe could get to it. Although it claimed to have other nations best interests at heart, American often abused and broke promises to the nations it took over. Why? All in the name of power and business! America is a prime example of an imperialist nation: from Hawaii to Cuba, Guam to the Philippines, Puerto Rico to Asia, the US took whatever land it could possibly attain. Especially during this time period, the US was highly concerned with asserting itself as a world power, and furthering its reach in the world.

Spanish-American War

Questions for Part II—The Spanish-American War

1. What connections did the U.S. have to Cuba in the late 1800s? List at least two.
First and foremost, the US had vast amounts of money invested in Cuba's sugar industry. In fact. the US actually removed tariffs on Cuban sugar in order to lower the cost of sugar in America.

Also, during the Cuban revolt in 1868, many Cuban leaders had suggested joining the US after they gained their freedom. The US, although it refused to get involved this revolution, was open to the proposal, eager to gain another slave territory. Many Cubans saw joining the US as a move for security and protection at that time.

2. What were the Spanish “reconcentration camps”?
The Spanish reconcentration camps were created to cut off the nationalist forces from the general public. The Spanish thought that this would cut the rebels off from supplies and shelter. In order to do this, these camps were created. Thousands upon thousands of innocent Cuban citizens were herded into enclosed towns where a lack off food, adequate housing, and sanitation made living conditions horrible.


3. List three reasons why the United States went to war with Spain in Cuba.
a. Many US businessmen had interests in Cuba. Under Spanish rule, these interests were threatened. If the US went to war with Spain, they had the chance to gain Cuba and boost American profits there. They also had the chance to gain Spain's other territories. One reason the US went to war with Spain was to expand their control and gain more lucrative areas in the world for American use.

b. The Spanish ambassador to the US wrote a private letter to a friend insulting President McKinley. This letter was leaked to American newspapers, and tensions rose dramatically. Americans had been looking for an excuse to get angry at Spain, and this incident provided it. Combined with yellow journalism, the ambassador's insults were soon blown far out of proportion and anti-Spanish sentiments swelled throughout the country.

c. The final straw for the US was the explosion of the USS Maine. The ship had been anchored in Havana harbor on a peaceful errand; Spain had okayed the visit. When the ship was blown up, 260 American soldiers were killed in the blast. Although it could not be confirmed at the time, rumours quickly began flying. Americans became incensed, convinced that the Spanish had blown up a US ship for no good reason and killed hundreds of innocent men. The US felt that it could no longer wait - Spain had apparently taken one step too far and needed to be dealt with.


4. Which do you believe was the most important reason? Why?
Reason A was certainly the most important reason. It set a background for the other two reasons. If the US had not had an interest in Cuba in the first place, tension would never have been created between Spain and America. If American businessmen had never had interests in Cuba, the government never would have been pressured into protecting those interests above all others. If America had not been tempted to take over Spain's many other territories, there would have not been enough pros to push the US into war. Reason A set up a base argument for going to war - the other two reasons simply acted as catalysts.

5. What did the Teller Amendment say?
The Teller Amendment claimed that the US was not, in fact, interested in controlling the Cuban people or ruling them. It also stated that once the war was over, the Cuban government would be left intact and control of the island would be left to the Cuban people.

6. Why was a portion of the Spanish-American War fought in the Philippines?
Although most were focused near Cuba, a portion of the Spanish troops were stationed in the Philippines. Also, though less so, the nationalists in the Philippines were seen as allies to the US. It was thought that defending them and supplying them with weapons would aid the US in its fight against Spain.

7. Dewey’s victory in the Manila Harbor sparked an outpouring of army volunteers in the United States.



8. Why did Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders want to fight in Cuba?
Like many other volunteers, The Rough Riders were encouraged to fight by Dewey's early victory at Manila. In a rush to defend their country and provide much needed man power, boys from Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma and North and South Dakota poured in to join the Rough Riders. Teddy Roosevelt was especially passionate about their cause - he actually left his job in the McKinley legislation to take his position in the army.

9. a. Why were many African-Americans eager to serve in the Spanish-American War?
Many African-Americans saw the army as a way of moving up in the world. Not only was the army one of the few places that would take them, if they met military success, it would hopefully glean respect from the general public back home. Also, many blacks identified with the struggles of the Cuban slaves and were sympathetic to their cause.

b. What forms of discrimination and prejudice did they encounter?
First of all, they were unable to be promoted to the officer corps. At first, many blacks were actually denied when they volunteered to join the army. Many regiments were actually kept from fighting in Cuba, even though the government assumed that they would be more suited for a tropical climate and even that they would be immune to yellow fever.

10. How did racism influence American perceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines? Give two examples of events where racism affected U.S. policy after the war.

a. In the negotiations with Spain, the Cuban rebels and the Cuban people in general were largely ignored. The US assumed that the apparently stupid savages were unable to create good diplomatic policies - how could such unintelligent people possibly govern themselves, they thought?

b. Although the US had claimed that they were fighting for Filipino freedom, after the war, control was not relinquished to the Filipinos as promised. The US decided to remain in the Philippines until "things could be worked out" - it was very clear to the Filipinos that "things" would not be worked out for a very long time.

Imperialism: The Origins Of a Global Power

1. Why did American plantation owners and U.S. Marines topple Hawaii’s queen in 1893? Why was Hawaii considered to be a valuable prize? What was President Grover Cleveland’s reaction? Do you agree or disagree with his quote on page 1?

For many years before 1893, Hawaii had been involved in U.S. business affairs. The islands were considered a highly valuable prize - they were the perfect refueling point for ships crossing the Pacific Ocean to Asia, not to mention the fact that the islands were chock full of natural resources. Many U.S. businessmen had invested in these tropical crops, and for the, an American annexation of Hawaii would have been immensely profitable. In 1893, their urging to place Hawaii under U.S. control pushed through, and with the help of the Marines, Hawaii's monarchy was toppled. President Grover Cleveland did not agree with these actions, though - he withdrew the treaty that would have granted the US control of Hawaii. He thought that the US had treated the Hawaiian queen unfairly, and that this would reflect poorly on the US.

I agree with his quote. Yes, it was not America's right to annex Hawaii, and yes, it was a stain on the nation's morals. If powerful countries abuse their might to gain as much land as possible, how can the world possibly function? It is not appropriate for a country that preaches justice for all to storm into an innocent land and re-haul everything that the native people have ever known. The US made a mistake with Hawaii, and it needed to be fixed.

2. Identify five important changes that transformed American in the nineteenth century. How did these five changes affect Americans?

1) Immigration: As more and more immigrants poured into the country in the late nineteenth century, America's demographic began to change. No longer was America made up of northwestern European descended citizens - as conditions grew more crowded and oppressive in Europe, immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe began to flood the country as well. This not only raised America's population significantly, it boosted America's ethnic diversity by far.

2) Urban growth: With the growth of its population, America began to develop larger and larger cities. With these cities arrived significant problems: disease, overcrowding, poverty, rising crime rates, etc. As city living became more popular, agriculture lost its appeal. American became a city-centralized nation.

3) Manufacturing: By the time the late 1800s had rolled around, manufacturing was far more popular than farming. These factories often drew immigrant workers, who were willing to work for close to nothing. The iron and steel industries boomed, and technological advances happened every day. A "new kind of immigrant" cropped up - these Southern and Eastern Europeans worried many Americans.

4) Trade: With manufacturing came many exportable goods. America was making a fair amount of money from exports to Europe. The kinds of things the US exported changed, too - advances in transportation boosted the transportation of agricultural goods, and the US soon became just as heavy a name in the trading industry as most European countries were.

5) Growing economic power: The US began to look to buy overseas markets to receive American goods. This worried many European nations, and caused them to raise their tariffs. This meant that America began to export its goods to less powerful countries, such as those in Latin America and Asia.

3. How did the economic depression that began in 1893 deepen the divisions in American society? Which groups suffered the most during the depression?

The economic depression of 1893 only served to deepen the divisions already made in American society. It affected factory workers and immigrants, as well as poor farmers, most heavily. This made these lower class workers realize that they did not have a strong foothold in the world of American business. It was the big business men and factory owners who held all the power - if the workers struck, they lost their jobs; if they did not strike, they were barely earning a living as it was. The depression also split America into two groups - those who were in favor of cheap money (farmers in debt who supported a boost in the money supply) and those who favored tight money (stated that an increase of the money supply would cause awful inflation).

4. What were the values many Americans attached to the frontier? Why did many Americans fear that the closing of the frontier would harm America’s national character?

America had always viewed the frontier as a beautiful, plentiful, empty expanse of land. To explore the frontier was to be brave, strong, charismatic, American. White Americans thought of themselves as brave, pragmatic, ingenious, egalitarian, patriotic, individual and resourceful. All of these values were displayed in exploring the frontier, or so they thought. The frontier was also seen as a place of economic opportunity. Many Americans, especially old generation White Americans, feared that closing the frontier would mean an end to true American values. How could the country continue to grow in such a charismatic way if it could not expand into the open frontier?

5. Why did some Americans suggest greater involvement overseas?

Over the years, America had grown to be just as powerful as many European nations. With the general unrest in the country about losing American values, many US citizens felt that being more aggressive overseas would give America the air of toughness and bravery that the lack of a frontier to expand into had depleted. Other Americans simply saw the lands overseas as areas of economic growth. EIther way, it was clear that Americans had hunger to move up and out and make their presence known in the world that could not be stopped.

6. What policy did expansionists say would ensure the economic success of the United States? What did imperialists say?

Expansionists thought that, in order for the US to succeed economically, it would have to build an empire across the ocean. Some wanted to simply open American ports in other countries, but others pushed for the US to legitimately create an empire. The latter, called imperialists, insisted that it was America's mission to expand throughout the world, bringing American values to every savage or inferior nation.

7. How did the theories of social Darwinism and scientific racism lend support to the cause of American imperialism? How were these pseudo-scientific theories used to justify racist policies and imperialism? Are they still used today?

Imperialists used social Darwinism and scientific racism to back up their urging for the US to take over other countries. In the eyes of the Imperialists, some nations were simply more advanced and intelligent than others - as social Darwinism would say, some countries were higher up on the evolution chain than others. Scientific racism helped to support these claims but using supposedly medical and scientific means to determine that certain races were inferior to others. Of course, the Imperialists pointed out that the US came out on top in these theories, so what was the problem in taking over poorer, stupider countries? There was nothing wrong with it; on the contrary, Imperialists thought, the US would have been doing these countries a favor. Although these false scientific practices no longer hold real merit, there are unfortunate amounts of people in our modern world who still believe that some races and countries are vastly superior to others, for no apparent reason.

8. What did many Protestant churches say was America’s role in the world?

Many Protestant churches insisted that America's role in the world was to help save the people of "downtrodden" nations. They sent missionaries all over in order to apparently save the souls of "savages" in other countries. Some religious leaders even believed that god favored Americans, and that imperialism was god's plan for the human race. Some people even believed that if the Protestants and the US could spread their influence all over the world, world peace would be achieved.

9. Why did the United States become involved in several Latin American nations in the nineteenth century? Summarize why the United States became involved in Samoa, Hawaii, and other Latin American nations.

In the nineteenth century, the US became involved in several Latin American countries. There was big push to "stabilize" troublesome countries in order to make the world a safer place for American commerce. For example, in 1878, the US signed a treaty that promised to aid Samoa in exchange for free access to Samoan harbors. After the US agreed to this, Britain and Germany tried to take over parts of Samoa. The US held true to its promise and helped defend Samoa. The US did the same sort of thing in many other nations, specifically Hawaii. It offered protection or aid in return for easier trading access; in many cases, the US ended up annexing the very countries that it had originally offered aid to.

10. Why was the United States concerned about British involvement in Venezuela? What concept did U.S. Secretary of State Richard Olney invoke in response?

The US was concerned about British involvement in Venezuela because it was afraid that Britain would begin to colonize Latin America in the same way that it had colonized Africa. This would completely cut off American access to South America. Olney invoked the Monroe Doctrine in response - this caused much tension between Britain and America, but eventually things were resolved, although without the involvement of any Venezuelans.

Spanish-American War (1898)

Causes: How did each of the following help to cause the outbreak of the Spanish-American War?

1. American business owners
American business owners had ahd an interest in Cuba for a long time. They offered to buy Cuba from Spain - Spain responded to this with a violent and resounding "no". Even after this, Americans tended to lend sympathy to the Cubans during their revolutions against Spain. After Cuban slaves had been freed, America invested large amounts of money in Cuban sugar cane fields.
2. José Martí
A Cuban journalist and poet who had been exiled to New York, Marti helped to launch a campaign against the Spanish in 1895. He used guerrilla tactics and destroyed a lot of property, focusing particularly on American owned property. He hoped that this would drag America into the war, helping to gain freedom for Cuba.
3. Valeriano Weyler
A general sent by Spain to crush the revolution, Weyler's solution was to force Cuba's rural population into concentration camps. Food was scarce and disease ran rampant, but in Weyler's eyes, at least now the civilians would not be helping the rebels. News of this soon got out, and it caused a strong negative reaction, especially in the U.S.
4. Yellow journalism
Newspaper tycoons such as Hearst and Pulitzer published exaggerated accounts of the way things were playing out in Cuba, especially of the atrocities that Weyler was committing. These scintillating stories generated even more sympathy from Americans, and served to drum up even more war fever than before.
5. De Lôme letter
Things seemed to be going well in President McKinley's negotiations with Spain, up until 1898 when the New York Journal published a letter from the Spanish minister to the U.S. The letter, which had been leaked, insulted president McKinley, calling him weak. Although the minister resigned and Spain apologized, the damage had been done - Americans were outraged at this insult to their President.
6. U.S.S. Maine
On February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine exploded in the Havana harbor. More than 260 men were killed. It had originally been sent there to bring home U.S. citizens in risk of danger. Although no clear cut cause of the explosion has been uncovered, American newspapers blamed it on Spain, and the public listened, becoming even more angry than ever before.

Effects: What happened to each of the following territories as a result of the Spanish-American War?

7. Cuba
Cuba was granted its freedom via the Treaty of Paris.
8. Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory.
9. Guam
Like Puerto Rico and the Phillipines, Guam was annexed by America.
10. Philippine Islands
The citizens of the Phillipines were also fighting for their freedom. After the U.S. victory against Spain in the Phillipines, 11,000 U.S. troops joined Fillipino rebels in protesting for their freedom. The Phillipines were annexed to the U.S., although this launched great debate over whether this was the right thing to do or not.

TR's Square Deal

1. How did Roosevelt create the modern presidency?

As the youngest man ever to become President at the time, Roosevelt was certainly a new kind of president. He put himself into the public eye, letting tales of his athletic exploits reach and impress the public. He used the esteem that the population gave him to push new, forward thinking ideas, such as his policy that the government should step in whenever a state could not solve a problem on its own. Roosevelt saw the presidency as an opportunity to shape and influence the media, and he certainly made us of this opportunity.

2. How did Roosevelt's intervention in a coal strike set a precedent for federal arbitration?

Roosevelt's tactic of mediating a discussion between both sides of the coal strike was so successful that it quickly became

the standard for strike breaking. After Roosevelt's success here, any strike that interfered with the welfare of the public was to be

dealt with by the federal government.
3. What did Roosevelt do to the trusts and railroads?

Roosevelt took a passionate approach to reforming the trusts and railroads. Roosevelt strongly disliked any trust that he felt would hurt the public interest. In order to break up these trusts, he began filing suit after suit against them, in ordinance with the Sherman Anti-Act. Although not all of these suits were successful, Roosevelt managed to make a very clear statement.

Roosevelt took a similar approach to the railroad business, passing acts that made the railroad enterprise a more fair business for both the big leaders and the everyday workers. The Elkins Act of 1903 made it impossible for certain shippers or receivers to earn money simply by using specific railroads, and prevented railroad companies from raising their rates without alerting the public. the Hepburn Act of 1906 prohibiting the granting of free railroad passes. All of Roosevelt's efforts helped the federal government gain more control of the railroad business.
4. What legislation passed during Roosevelt's presidency protected citizens?

There were many legislations passed during Roosevelt's presidency that protected citizens - the Meat Inspection Act, which regulated conditions in meat packing plants and mandated government inspection of meat, and the Pure Food and Drug Act, which stopped the sale of any contaminated food or medicine and required all products to be truthfully labeled, were the two major public health legislations of the period.
5. What did Roosevelt do to protect the environment?

To protect the environment, Roosevelt started a huge conservation movement. He set up many national parks and wildlife reserves, and millions of acres of land for government water-power sites and geological exploration. The Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 gave money from land sales in the West to funding for large-scale irrigation projects.